“O homem não é nada além daquilo que a educação faz dele.” “Podemos julgar o coração de um homem pela forma como ele trata os animais.” “Não somos ricos pelo que temos, e sim pelo que não precisamos ter.” Show
Qual o pensamento do filósofo Kant?Frases de Kant
O que Kant e Lent afirmam a respeito da consciência humana?Em suas linhas principais, a filosofia de Kant afirma que o conhecimento é a resultante de dois fatores – os sentidos e a compreensão. Assim, o conhecimento tem o espaço e o tempo como suas condições essenciais. E o espaço e o tempo não chegam a existir a não ser como formas de nossa consciência. Como Immanuel Kant concilia racionalismo e empirismo?Kant, portanto, solucionou o debate entre racionalistas e empiristas mostrando que os dados da experiência (empirismo) são “encaixados” em categorias e intuições a priori (racionalistas). Os elementos a priori e a posteriori do conhecimento são devidamente conciliados. Quem foi Kant e o que ele defendia?Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) foi um filósofo alemão, fundador da “Filosofia Crítica” – sistema que procurou determinar os limites da razão humana. Sua obra é considerada a pedra angular da filosofia moderna. O que posso saber o que devo fazer Kant?Em uma carta a Friedrich Stäudlin do mesmo ano da publicação de seu texto (1793), Kant escreve que a pergunta central do texto da Religião seria dada nos seguinte termos: “o que me é permitido esperar?”. Ela é, por definição uma questão prática. O que é o Iluminismo para Kant?Que é o Iluminismo? Kant respondia: “É a saída do homem de sua menoridade [intelectual] da qual ele mesmo é responsável”. Que se entende por menoridade? “A incapacidade do homem de servir-se de seu entendimento (de seu pensamento) sem ser dirigido por outras pessoas (por tutores ou conselheiros)”. O que Kant fala sobre direitos humanos?Segundo Kant, todo ser humano tem um direito legítimo ao respeito de seus semelhantes e está, por sua vez, obrigado a respeitar todos os demais. A humanidade em si mesma caracteriza dignidade, pois o ser humano não pode ser usado meramente como meio por qualquer ser humano, mas deve sempre ser usado como um fim. Como Kant tentou resolver o impasse entre racionalismo e empirismo?Kant resolve esse impasse mostrando que o conhecimento do objeto não pode acontecer separados do corpo e da mente, por ter entre estas um interdependência. Como se concebeu a crítica kantiana ao racionalismo e ao empirismo?Chegamos, portanto, a uma síntese que Kant faz entre racionalismo e empirismo. Sem o conteúdo da experiência, dados na intuição, os pensamentos são vazios de mundo (racionalismo); por outro lado, sem os conceitos, eles não têm nenhum sentido para nós (empirismo).
“O homem não é nada além daquilo que a educação faz dele.” “Podemos julgar o coração de um homem pela forma como ele trata os animais.” “Não somos ricos pelo que temos, e sim pelo que não precisamos ter.” IMMANUEL KANT Citações: “Pensamentos sem conteúdo são vazios; intuições sem conceitos são cegas.” “O homem não é nada além daquilo que a educação faz dele.” Nesse caso, deve ser indicado na primeira nota de rodapé relevante as abreviaturas e o padrão de citação utilizado. Todas as obras de Kant devem ser referenciadas exclusivamente segundo a Edição da Academia (Akademie-Ausgabe). O Kant MC é um rapper brasileiro do estilo freestyle que tem como nome Bruno Souza de Lopes. Exemplos de citação direta
Immanuel Kant foi um filósofo prussiano. Amplamente considerado como o principal filósofo da era moderna, Kant operou, na epistemologia, uma síntese entre o racionalismo continental , e a tradição empírica inglesa .Nascido de uma modesta família de artesãos, depois de um longo período como professor secundário de geografia, Kant veio a estudar filosofia, física e matemática na Universidade de Königsberg e em 1755 começou a lecionar ensinando Ciências Naturais. Em 1770 foi nomeado professor catedrático da Universidade de Königsberg, cidade da qual nunca saiu, levando uma vida monotonamente pontual e só dedicada aos estudos filosóficos. Realizou numerosos trabalhos sobre ciências naturais e exatas.Kant é famoso sobretudo pela elaboração do denominado idealismo transcendental: todos nós trazemos formas e conceitos a priori para a experiência concreta do mundo, os quais seriam de outra forma impossíveis de determinar. A filosofia da natureza e da natureza humana de Kant é historicamente uma das mais determinantes fontes do relativismo conceptual que dominou a vida intelectual do século XX. Kant é também conhecido pela filosofia moral e pela proposta, a primeira moderna, de uma teoria da formação do Sistema Solar, conhecida como a hipótese Kant-Laplace. Wikipedia Page 2Kinder Anfangs in die Schule, nicht schon in der Absicht, damit sie dort etwas lernen sollen, sondern damit sie sich daran gewöhnen mögen, still zu sitzen und pünktlich das zu beobachten, was ihnen vorgeschrieben wird, damit sie nicht in Zukunft jeden ihrer Einfälle wirklich auch und augenblicklich in Ausübung bringen mögen. Page 3Unter den drei Staatsformen ist die der Demokratie, im eigentlichen Verstände des Worts, nothwendig ein Despotismus, weil sie eine executive Gewalt gründet, da Alle über und allenfalls auch wider Einen, (der also nicht mit einstimmt,) mithin Alle, die doch nicht Alle sind, beschließen; welches ein Widerspruch des allgemeinen Willens mit sich selbst und mit der Freiheit ist. Page 4Handle so, daß du die Menschheit, sowohl in deiner Person, als in der Person eines jeden andern, jederzeit zugleich als Zweck, niemals bloß als Mittel brauchest. Page 5Book IV, Part 2, Section 4 Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone (1793) Contexto: The question here is not, “How conscience ought to be guided? For Conscience is its own General and Leader; it is therefore enough that each man have one. What we want to know is, how conscience can be her own Ariadne, and disentangle herself from the mazes even of the most raveled and complicated casuistical theology. Here is an ethical proposition that stands in need of no proof: No Action May At Any Time Be Hazarded On The Uncertainty That Perchance It May Not Be Wrong (Quod dubitas, ne feceris! Pliny - which you doubt, then neither do) Hence the Consciousness, that Any Action I am about to perform is Right, is in itself a most immediate and imperative duty. What actions are right, - what wrong – is a matter for the understanding, not for conscience. p. 251 Page 6Free translation, as quoted by Edwin Powell Hubble, The Realm of the Nebulae (1936) An Original Theory or New Hypothesis of the Universe (1750) Contexto: I come now to another part of my system, and because it suggests a lofty idea of the plan of creation, it appears to me as the most seductive. The sequence of ideas that led us to it is very simple and natural. They are as follows: let us imagine a system of stars gathered together in a common plane, like those of the Milky Way, but situated so far away from us that even with the telescope we cannot distinguish the stars composing it; let us assume that its distance, compared to that separating us from the stars of the Milky Way, is the same proportion as the Milky Way is to the distance from the earth to the sun; such a stellar world will appear to the observer, who contemplates it at so enormous a distance, only as a little spot feebly illumined and subtending a very small angle; its shape will be circular, if its plane is perpendicular to the line of sight, elliptical, if it is seen obliquely. The faintness of its light, its form, and its appreciable diameter will obviously distinguish such a phenomenon from the isolated stars around it.We do not need to seek far in the observations of astronomers to meet with such phenomena. They have been seen by various observers, who have wondered at their strange appearance, have speculated about them, and have suggested some times the most amazing explanations, sometimes theories which were more rational, but which had no more foundation than the former. We refer to the nebulæ, or, more precisely, to a particular kind of celestial body which M. de Maupertius describes as follows:"These are small luminous patches, only slightly more brilliant than the dark background of the sky; they have this in common, that their shapes are more or less open elipses; and their light is far more feeble than that of any other objects to be perceived in the heavens."... It is much more natural and reasonable to assume that a nebula is not a unique and solitary sun, but a system of numerous suns, which appear crowded, because of their distance, into a space so limited that their light, which would be imperceptible were each of them isolated, suffices, owing to their enormous numbers, to give a pale and uniform luster. Their analogy with our own system of stars; their form, which is precisely what it should be according to our theory; the faintness of their light, which denotes an infinite distance; all are in admirable accord and lead us to consider these elliptical spots as systems of the same order as our own—in a word, to be Milky Ways similar to the one whose constitution we have explained. And if these hypotheses, in which analogy and observation consistently lend mutual support, have the same merit as formal demonstrations, we must consider the existence of such systems as demonstrated... We see that scattered through space out to infinite distances, there exist similar systems of stars [nebulous stars, nebulæ], and that creation, in the whole extent of its infinite grandeur, is everywhere organized into systems whose members are in relation with one another.... A vast field lies open to discoveries, and observations alone will give the key. Page 7Book IV, Part 2, Section 4Immanuel Kant, Religion Within the Boundary of Pure Reason 1793 translated by James W Semple, Advocate ,Edinburgh 1838 p. 255-257 Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone (1793) Contexto: Although individuals who have begun to awake to freedom of cogitation, after having long unconsciously slumbered under the yoke of a belief (e. g. Protestants), do straightway deem themselves ennobled, in proportion to their articles of belief are scanty; yet, singularly enough, they whose understandings still lie dormant, cling to a very different principle of safety. “Better Believe Too Much Than Believe Too Little,” is here the adage; for whatever is done beyond and above what is duty, cannot in any event harm, but may perchance to good. Upon this delusive dream, which would make dishonesty the very spirit and soul of religious confession, is based on the well-known argumentum a tuto, which obtains a more easy and extended currency, because religion compensates for every fault, and hence also for dishonesty in adopting it. If, says the sciolist https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sciolist, what I profess to believe concerning the Godhead is correct, then I have precisely hit the very truth. Should, on the other hand, the articles contain an error, still, as there is nothing in them morally improper, then have I merely assented to something superfluous and unnecessary, by all which I have no doubt molested, but certainly not incriminated myself. The peril arising out of the improbity of his profession – The Lesson of Conscience-necessarily undergone, when what is declared in the presence of God to be certain, which mankind must nevertheless know not to be so constituted as to admit of being affirmed with unconditioned certainty, are all overlooked by this dishonest maxim, And Indeed Pass With The Hypocrite For Nothing. The genuine safety-principle of true religion is contrariwise as follows. Whatever is a mean or condition of future bliss, unknown to naked reason, and promulgated singly by revelation, can strike root in my conviction, just like any other history; and so far forth as it does not militate against morality, cannot be absolutely false. Besides leaving this point totally undecided, I may unquestionably trust, that whatever of salutary there may lie in a document, will stand me in good stead, provided I do not by my moral short-coming make myself unworthy of it. In this maxim, there is a real moral safety, viz. That conscience be not violated; and more cannot be demanded from mankind. There is, moreover, an utmost danger and insecurity in that lauded stratagem of expediency, whereby we think astutely to evade any disadvantageous sequents that may spring from unbelieving nonconformity. Thus tampering with either party, we destroy our credit with both. Page 8Introduction I. Of the Difference Between Pure and Empirical Knowledge Critique of Pure Reason (1781; 1787) Variante: That all our knowledge begins with experience there can be no doubt. Contexto: That all our knowledge begins with experience there can be no doubt. For how is it possible that the faculty of cognition should be awakened into exercise otherwise than by means of objects which affect our senses, and partly of them selves produce representations, partly rouse our powers of understanding into activity, to compare, to connect, or to separate these, and so to convert the raw material of our sensuous impressions into a knowledge of objects, which is called experience? In respect of time, therefore, no knowledge of ours is antecedent to experience, but begins with it. But though all our knowledge begins with experience, it by no means follows, that all arises out of experience. For, on the contrary, it is quite possible that our empirical knowledge is a compound of that which we receive through impressions, and that which the faculty of cognition supplies from itself (sensuous impressions giving merely the occasion)... It is, therefore, a question which requires close investigation, and is not to be answered at first sight,—whether there exists a knowledge altogether independent of experience, and even of all sensuous impressions? Knowledge of this kind is called à priori, in contradistinction to empirical knowledge which has its sources à posteriori, that is, in experience. Page 9„He [Jesus] claims that not the observance of outer civil or statutory churchly duties but the pure moral disposition of the heart alone can make man well-pleasing to God (Matthew V, 20-48); … that injury done one’s neighbor can be repaired only through satisfaction rendered to the neighbor himself, not through acts of divine worship (V, 24). Thus, he says, does he intend to do full justice to the Jewish law (V, 17); whence it is obvious that not scriptural scholarship but the pure religion of reason must be the law’s interpreter, for taken according to the letter, it allowed the very opposite of all this. Furthermore, he does not leave unnoticed, in his designations of the strait gate and the narrow way, the misconstruction of the law which men allow themselves in order to evade their true moral duty, holding themselves immune through having fulfilled their churchly duty (VII, 13). He further requires of these pure dispositions that they manifest themselves also in works (VII, 16) and, on the other hand, denies the insidious hope of those who imagine that, through invocation and praise of the Supreme Lawgiver in the person of His envoy, they will make up for their lack of good works and ingratiate themselves into favor (VII, 21). Regarding these works he declares that they ought to be performed publicly, as an example for imitation (V, 16), and in a cheerful mood, not as actions extorted from slaves (VI, 16); and that thus, from a small beginning in the sharing and spreading of such dispositions, religion, like a grain of seed in good soil, or a ferment of goodness, would gradually, through its inner power, grow into a kingdom of God (XIII, 31-33).“ Help us translate this quote — Immanuel Kant Book IV, Part 1, Section 1, “The Christian religion as a natural religion” Page 10As quoted in German Thought, From The Seven Years' War To Goethe's Death : Six Lectures (1880) by Karl Hillebrand, p. 208 Page 11Seventh Thesis Idea for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View (1784) Contexto: What is the use of working toward a lawful civic constitution among individuals, i. e., toward the creation of a commonwealth? The same unsociability which drives man to this causes any single commonwealth to stand in unrestricted freedom in relation to others; consequently, each of them must expect from another precisely the evil which oppressed the individuals and forced them to enter into a lawful civic state. The friction among men, the inevitable antagonism, which is a mark of even the largest societies and political bodies, is used by Nature as a means to establish a condition of quiet and security. Through war, through the taxing and never-ending accumulation of armament, through the want which any state, even in peacetime, must suffer internally, Nature forces them to make at first inadequate and tentative attempts; finally, after devastations, revolutions, and even complete exhaustion, she brings them to that which reason could have told them at the beginning and with far less sad experience, to wit, to step from the lawless condition of savages into a league of nations. In a league of nations, even the smallest state could expect security and justice, not from its own power and by its own decrees, but only from this great league of nations … from a united power acting according to decisions reached under the laws of their united will. Page 12„When Galilei let balls of a particular weight, which he had determined himself, roll down an inclined plain, or Torricelli made the air carry a weight, which he had previously determined to be equal to that of a definite volume of water; or when, in later times, Stahl changed metal into lime, and lime again into metals, by withdrawing and restoring something, a new light flashed on all students of nature. They comprehended that reason has insight into that only, which she herself produces on her own plan, and that she must move forward with the principles of her judgments, according to fixed law, and compel nature to answer her questions, but not let herself be led by nature, as it were in leading strings, because otherwise accidental observations made on no previously fixed plan, will never converge towards a necessary law, which is the only thing that reason seeks and requires. Reason, holding in one hand its principles, according to which concordant phenomena alone can be admitted as laws of nature, and in the other hand the experiment, which it has devised according to those principles, must approach nature, in order to be taught by it: but not in the character of a pupil, who agrees to everything the master likes, but as an appointed judge, who compels the witnesses to answer the questions which he himself proposes. Therefore even the science of physics entirely owes the beneficial revolution in its character to the happy thought, that we ought to seek in nature (and not import into it by means of fiction) whatever reason must learn from nature, and could not know by itself, and that we must do this in accordance with what reason itself has originally placed into nature. Thus only has the study of nature entered on the secure method of a science, after having for many centuries done nothing but grope in the dark.“ Help us translate this quote — Immanuel Kant, livro Crítica da Razão Pura Preface to 2nd edition, Tr. F. Max Müller (1905) Page 13„If it were right to overstep a little the limits of apodictic certainty befitting metaphysics, it would seem worth while to trace out some things pertaining not merely to the laws but even to the causes of sensuous intuition, which are only intellectually knowable. Of course the human mind is not affected by external things, and the world does not lie open to its insight infinitely, except as far as itself together with all other things is sustained by the same infinite power of one. Hence it does not perceive external things but by the presence of the same common sustaining cause; and hence space, which is the universal and necessary condition of the joint presence of everything known sensuously, may be called the phenomenal omnipresence, for the cause of the universe is not present to all things and everything, as being in their places, but their places, that is the relations of the substances, are possible, because it is intimately present to all. Furthermore, since the possibility of the changes and successions of all things whose principle as far as sensuously known resides in the concept of time, supposes the continuous existence of the subject whose opposite states succeed; that whose states are in flux, lasting not, however, unless sustained by another; the concept of time as one infinite and immutable in which all things are and last, is the phenomenal eternity of the general cause} But it seems more cautious to hug the shore of the cognitions granted to us by the mediocrity of our intellect than to be carried out upon the high seas of such mystic investigations, like Malebranche, whose opinion that we see all things in God is pretty nearly what has here been expounded.“ Help us translate this quote — Immanuel Kant Kant's Inaugural Dissertation (1770), Section IV On The Principle Of The Form Of The Intelligible World Page 14„Let the letters a b c denote the three angular points of a rectilineal triangle. If the point did move continuously over the lines ab, bc, ca, that is, over the perimeter of the figure, it would be necessary for it to move at the point b in the direction ab, and also at the same point b in the direction bc. These motions being diverse, they cannot be simultaneous. There-fore, the moment of presence of the movable point at vertex b, considered as moving in the direction ab, is different from the moment of presence of the movable point at the same vertex b, considered as moving in the same direction bc. But between two moments there is time; therefore, the movable point is present at point b for some time, that is, it rests. Therefore it does not move continuously, which is contrary to the assumption. The same demonstration is valid for motion over any right lines including an assignable angle. Hence a body does not change its direction in continuous motion except by following a line no part of which is straight, that is, a curve, as Leibnitz maintained.“ Help us translate this quote — Immanuel Kant Kant's Inaugural Dissertation (1770), Section III On The Principles Of The Form Of The Sensible World Page 15„England and France, the two most civilized nations on earth, who are in contrast to each other because of their different characters, are, perhaps chiefly for that reason, in constant feud with one another. Also, England and France, because of their inborn characters, of which the acquired and artificial character is only the result, are probably the only nations who can be assumed to have a particular and, as long as both national characters are not blended by the force of war, unalterable characteristics. That French has become the universal language of conversation, especially in the feminine world, and that English is the most widely used language of commerce among tradesmen, probably reflects the difference in their continental and insular geographic situation.“ Kant, Immanuel (1996), page 226 |
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