Describe the long-term impacts of each european power in canada and the united states.

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Volume 207, 1 March 2019, Pages 13-36

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• Bilateral relations
• Partnerships and organizations
• Canada-U.S. fact sheet

Canada and the United States (U.S.) enjoy a unique relationship. The Canada-U.S. partnership is forged by shared geography, similar values, common interests, deep personal connections and powerful, multi-layered economic ties. Our two countries share a deep and longstanding defence and national security partnership, providing both countries with greater security than could be achieved individually. Trade and investment between Canada and the U.S. supports millions of jobs. A secure and efficient flow of goods and people across the border is vital to both countries’ economic competitiveness and prosperity.

Canada and the U.S. work together on key issues, including border management, foreign policy and security cooperation, bilateral trade and the ongoing implementation of the Canada-United States-Mexico Agreement (CUSMA1), environmental protection, and energy security. We are also committed to promoting diversity, equity and inclusion, including by working in partnership with Indigenous peoples.

In February 2021, Prime Minister Trudeau and U.S. President Biden launched the Roadmap for a Renewed U.S.-Canada Partnership, which lays out an ambitious framework to build a greener, more prosperous future; grow our economies and strengthen the middle class; combat the global COVID-19 pandemic; create safer, more equitable communities; and stand together in the face of threats to democracy. Defending democracy is at the heart of our commitment to stand with Ukraine in the face of Russia’s unprovoked war of aggression.  

Canada has an embassy in Washington, D.C., consulates general in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis, New York, San Francisco, and Seattle, 3 trade offices, and 14 Honorary Consuls. The United States maintains an embassy in Ottawa and consulates general across Canada.

Border and COVID-19 cooperation

Canada and the U.S. share a land border close to 9,000 km long, which is the longest border in the world. The two countries cooperate closely to manage the secure and efficient flow of goods and people across the border that is vital to both countries’ economic competitiveness and prosperity. This collaboration was exemplified in our mutual agreement to close the border to all non-essential travel on March 18, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Both countries cooperated closely to coordinate their border measures and have since reopened to fully vaccinated travellers.

It is estimated that around 400,000 people crossed the Canada-United States border every day (pre-pandemic) and that there are about 800,000 Canadian citizens living in the United States. There are many Canadian First Nations residents and U.S. Native American Tribes whose culture spans the border.

Security and defence cooperation

Canada and the United States are key allies and defence partners, and we collaborate closely to address foreign policy crises and to defend shared values abroad. Our mutual objectives of continental defence and of global peace and security have led to close cooperation and integration of defence and national security agencies. Our bilateral defence and national security relationship spans the full spectrum of cooperation, from shared defence of the continent to combined operations, exercises, and training around the globe; commitments to collective objectives through the North American Aerospace Defence Command (NORAD), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the Five-Eyes; intelligence sharing; defence materiel cooperation, and strong relationships between law enforcement agencies.

Canada and the U.S. cooperate closely in security operations around the world, including in Europe through NATO and to build the capacity of the Ukrainian security forces; across the Middle East through the U.S.-led Global Coalition to defeat Da’esh; maintaining a maritime presence and upholding sanctions in the Asia-Pacific region; and illicit trafficking operations in the Caribbean Sea and eastern Pacific Ocean.

Trade

Canada and the U.S. share one of the largest trading relationships in the world, with over $1 trillion in bilateral trade in goods and services in 2021. That year, Canada was the largest U.S. trading partner in goods and services. Canada-U.S. trade is built on long-standing binational supply chains, whereby roughly 79% of Canadian goods exports to the U.S. are incorporated into U.S. supply chains.

In the trade relationship, Canada’s efforts are focused on ensuring the effective implementation of the CUSMA, strengthening supply chain resiliency, and resolving bilateral irritants. Canada is also seeking to establish enhanced collaboration with the U.S. to address global trade challenges.

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Shared environment

The Canada-U.S. border includes four of the five Great Lakes, many transboundary rivers and lakes, major airsheds, and migratory routes for wildlife species. The two countries have a long history of close cooperation and negotiation on environmental issues due to their integrated economy and common ecosystems. For example, Canada and the U.S. are currently negotiating to modernize the Columbia River Treaty.

Canada and the U.S. have committed to achieving ambitious greenhouse gas emissions reductions. Through the Canada-U.S. High-Level Ministerial Dialogue on Climate Ambition, launched in February 2021, the two countries are working on cooperative action to achieve our common objective of net-zero emissions by 2050, aligning policy solutions and regulatory approaches, and building resilience to climate impacts.

Energy infrastructure

Canada and the U.S. are each other’s top sources of imported energy. The highly integrated nature of our energy systems, where events on one side of the border have impacts on both sides, means it is more important than ever to ensure a secure, reliable, and sustainable supply of energy resources for North America and beyond. The impact of the Ukraine crisis on energy supply and demand further reinforces the importance of Canada-U.S. energy trade and expanding cross-border energy infrastructure.

Canada and the U.S. are committed to working together to encourage the development of cross-border clean electricity transmission, as part of the fight against climate change. Clean energy imports from Canada, including hydroelectricity, can help the U.S. achieve its climate goals.

Promoting fair and just societies

Canada and the U.S share a commitment to addressing systemic racism, unconscious bias, gender-based discrimination, barriers for persons with disabilities, and all other forms of discrimination and exclusion.

Partnerships and organizations

Global challenges require global solutions, and Canada-U.S. cooperation has never been more important to ensure that multilateral institutions address today’s realities.

Together, we are advocating for reform and modernization in important international institutions such as the United Nations, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and the World Trade Organization.

Canada and the United States work closely in multilateral fora, such as:

[1] CUSMA is referred to as USMCA in the U.S.

North America, the third-largest continent, extends from the tiny Aleutian Islands in the northwest to the Isthmus of Panama in the south. The continent includes the enormous island of Greenland in the northeast and the small island countries and territories that dot the Caribbean Sea and western North Atlantic Ocean. In the far north, the continent stretches halfway around the world, from Greenland to the Aleutians. But at Panama’s narrowest part, the continent is just 50 kilometers (31 miles) across.

North America’s physical geography, environment and resources, and human geography can be considered separately.

North America can be divided into five physical regions: the mountainous west, the Great Plains, the Canadian Shield, the varied eastern region, and the Caribbean. Mexico and Central America’s western coast are connected to the mountainous west, while its lowlands and coastal plains extend into the eastern region.

Within these regions are all the major types of biomes in the world. A biome is a community of animals and plants spreading over an extensive area with a relatively uniform climate. Some diverse biomes represented in North America include desert, grassland, tundra, and coral reefs.

Western Region

Young mountains rise in the west. The most familiar of these mountains are probably the Rockies, North America’s largest chain. The Rockies stretch from the province of British Columbia, Canada, to the U.S. state of New Mexico.

The Rocky Mountains are part of a system of parallel mountain ranges known as the Cordilleras. A cordillera is a long series of mountain ranges. Although cordilleras exist all over the world, in North America, “the Cordilleras” indicate the massive mountain ranges in the western part of the continent. The Cordilleras extend from Canada all the way to the Isthmus of Panama.

Volcanic mountain ranges in Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama are also considered part of the Cordilleras. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur frequently in this region. Volcanic activity can destroy towns and cities. It also contributes to the rich, fertile soils of the region.

Some of the Earth’s youngest mountains are in the Cascade Range of the U.S. states of Washington, Oregon, and California. Some peaks began to form only about a million years ago—a blink of an eye in Earth’s long history. The mountains include temperate rain forest—a biome unique to the area. The temperate rain forest receives an incredible amount of precipitation, between 254 to 508 centimeters (100 to 200 inches) annually. However, its cool winters and mild summers promote the growth of mosses, ferns, fungi, and lichens.

The temperate rain forest supports a wide variety of life. The Sitka spruce, western red cedar, and Douglas fir are trees native to North America’s temperate rain forest. Some of these trees grow to more than 90 meters (300 feet) tall and 3 meters (10 feet) in diameter. Black bears, Roosevelt elk, and marmots are indigenous animal species.

The three major desert regions of North America—the Sonoran, Mojave, and Chihuahuan—are all in the American southwest and northern Mexico. These large deserts are located in the rain shadows of nearby mountains. The mountains block precipitation and accelerate the movement of hot, dry wind over these regions. The Sonoran is in the rain shadow of the Coast Ranges, the Mojave is in the shadow of the Sierra Nevada, and the Chihuahuan is in the shadow of the Sierra Madre.

In addition to mountains, deserts, and forests, the northern part of the western region of North America also has the richest deposits of oil and natural gas on the continent. Most of these deposits are located offshore, in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans.

Great Plains

Much of the fertile soil was formed from material deposited during the most recent glacial period. This ice age reached its peak about 18,000 years ago. As glaciers retreated, streams of melted ice dropped sediment on the land, building layers of productive soil.

The grassland or prairie regions of the Great Plains make up the largest biome in North America. Extreme weather prevents the growth of large plants but is perfectly suited to the native grasses that dominate the region.

Canadian Shield

The Canadian Shield is a raised but relatively flat plateau. It extends over eastern, central, and northwestern Canada. The Canadian Shield is characterized by a rocky landscape pocked by an astounding number of lakes.

The tundra, stretching along the northern borders of Alaska and Canada to the Hudson Bay area, is a biome common to the Canadian Shield. Tundra is where low temperatures and precipitation levels hinder tree growth. The tundra is characterized by permafrost—soil that is frozen for two or more years. This permafrost keeps moisture near the soil’s surface, promoting vegetation growth even in the extreme, Arctic conditions of the tundra.

During the summer, this top layer of soil thaws less than 10 centimeters (only a few inches) down, forming numerous shallow lakes, ponds, and bogs. Lichens, mosses, algae, and succulents take advantage of these shallow waters. In turn, they provide food for the caribou and musk ox that are typical of this area.

Eastern Region

North America’s older mountain ranges, including the Appalachians, rise near the east coast of the United States and Canada. These areas have been mined for rich deposits of coal and other minerals for hundreds of years.

The Atlantic coastal plain extends from river, marsh, and wetland regions east of the mountains toward the sandy beaches of the Atlantic coast. Wetland areas are a biome of the eastern region and consist of areas of land whose soil is saturated with permanent or seasonal moisture. The Florida Everglades is the largest wetland system in the United States, covering more than 11,137 square kilometers (4,300 square miles) of southern Florida.

The Everglades is a biologically diverse region and contains several bordering ecosystems. Sawgrass marshes are the most iconic plant community of the Everglades and thrive on the slow-moving water of the wetlands. Alligators nest in the sawgrass, while wading birds such as egrets, herons, spoonbills, and ibises make their breeding grounds in other wetland tree species, such as cypress and mangrove.

Caribbean Region

The Caribbean Region includes more than 7,000 islands, islets, reefs, and cays. The region’s islands and smaller islets are varied in their topography; some have relatively flat and sandy terrain while others are rugged, mountainous, and volcanic.

Natural Wonders

North America’s varied landscape features many natural wonders. It has deep canyons, such as Copper Canyon in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. Denali, the continent’s highest peak, stands at 6,194 meters (20,320 feet) within Denali National Park and Preserve in the U.S. state of Alaska. Yellowstone National Park, in the U.S. states of Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho, has some of the world’s most active geysers. Canada’s Bay of Fundy has the greatest tidal range in the world. The Great Lakes form the planet’s largest area of freshwater. The Mississippi River, at 3,730 kilometers (2,320 miles) long, is one of the longest river systems in the world and drains all or parts of 31 U.S. states.