Name: Score: 0 / 20 points (0%) Ch1 The Nature of Psychology Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. 1. T he overjustification effect is when people go overboard and explain their own behavior a. with more emphasis on personal causes. b. with too much emphasis on salient individual reasons. c. with too much emphasis on salient situational causes. d. with exaggerated consideration of situational and personal causes. ANSWER: C POINTS: 0 / 1 2. T he field of Psychology is defined as the a. scientific study of behavior and mental processes. b. study of all mental activities. c. methodological analysis of behavior. d. observational record of behaviors. ANSWER: A POINTS: 0 / 1 3. O ne of the original ideas upon which psychology was founded is that a. all human behavior is reducible to its neurobiological roots. b. observable behavior is the appropriate subject for psychological study. c. mind and behavior can be subject to scientific investigation. d. humans are irrational animals. ANSWER: C POINTS: 0 / 1 4. O ne of the earliest debates concerning human psychology a. questioned whether human capabilities are inborn or acquired. b. concerned the importance of religion in development. c. related to the role of unconscious processes. d. related to the moral development of the child.
While definitions may vary, learning is often thought of as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. It is influenced by various biological, cultural, social, and emotional variables. Several different theories have emerged to explain how people learn. Some of the main theories of learning include:
This article explores these learning theories, including how each one explains the learning process. During the early part of the twentieth century, many psychologists became increasingly interested in turning psychology into a more scientific endeavor. These psychologists, known as behaviorists, argued that psychology needed to study only things that could be measured and quantified to be more scientific. A few different behavioral theories emerged to explain how and why people behave the way they do. Behavioral theories are centered on the environmental influences on the learning process. Environmental influences include associations, reinforcements, and punishments.
Classical conditioning suggests that learning occurs when an association is formed between a previously neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. In experiments conducted by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, a natural stimulus (food) was paired with the sound of a bell. The dogs would naturally salivate in response to food, but after multiple associations, the dogs would salivate to the sound of the bell alone. In classical conditioning:
Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning that involves strengthening or weakening a behavior by using reinforcement or punishment. Operant conditioning was first described by the behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner. It is sometimes also referred to as Skinnerian conditioning and instrumental conditioning. Skinner believed that classical conditioning simply could not account for all types of learning and was more interested in learning how the consequences of actions influence behaviors. Like classical conditioning, operant conditioning relies on forming associations. In operant conditioning, however, associations are made between a behavior and the consequences of that behavior. In operant conditioning:
When a behavior leads to a desirable consequence, it becomes more likely that the behavior will be repeated in the future. The behavior becomes less likely if the actions lead to a negative outcome. The cognitive approach to learning focuses on how attention, memory, and information processing contribute to the acquisition of knowledge. One of the best-known cognitive learning theories is Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Piaget described four stages of intellectual development that occur in childhood. These four stages explain how a child learns about the world and processes information.
The constructivist approach to learning characterizes learners as active participants in the process who play a role in constructing their knowledge. Constructivist theories of learning were influenced by the work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory stressed the importance of collaboration and social interaction in the learning process. Two important concepts of constructivist learning theories are the more knowledgeable other and the zone of proximal development:
Psychologist Albert Bandura suggested that much of learning takes place through observation. Children observe the actions of those around them, particularly caregivers and siblings, and then imitate these behaviors. In social learning:
In his well-known Bobo doll experiment, Bandura revealed just how easily children could be led to imitate even negative actions. Children who watched a video of an adult beating up a large inflatable doll were likelier to copy those actions when given a chance.
Bandura noted that learning something does not necessarily result in a behavior change. Children frequently learn new things through observation but might not engage in such behaviors until they need or are motivated to utilize the information. This learning theory focuses on learning via hands-on experience. The theory was formally introduced by psychologist David Kolb but was influenced by the work of other theorists, including Jean Piaget and John Dewey. According to Kolb, there are four stages in experiential learning. The first two, abstract conceptualization and concrete experience, relate to how people grasp experiences. The final two, active experimentation and reflective observation, refer to how people transform experiences. Such theories are typically not used in isolation. Instead, modern educators and psychologists draw on information from a variety of theories to develop effective educational strategies and psychological interventions that help people acquire new skills and knowledge.
For example, while behavioral approaches are no longer as dominant as they once were, they still play an important role in educational and therapeutic settings. For example, teachers continue to use behavioral strategies such as positive reinforcement and token economies to help shape the learning process.
The goal of learning more about these learning theories is to help adapt educational and therapeutic interventions to best suit an individual's needs. All learners are different, so drawing on various approaches, such as incorporating behavioral, constructivist, and experiential strategies can help maximize learning opportunities and improve educational outcomes.
Behavioral, cognitive, constructivist, social, and experiential learning theories are among psychology's best-known and most influential. Such theories have played a part in influencing education, therapy, and parenting approaches. |